ØWPCÌ $uËkè.?Ÿ‚ö¨~ô#ãŽUhø—§êüÿù9düp@°ÉÃþ"Ní”à#º5!k ÈC!F¥š½\+Õ_%1¶åýÐ|3@÷ý²CVÙWj/JUàÁʳ3Ø0çÖ+î‡*‚ߣXìß»%œœ »ÉsŸ;leÿ™˜Â +3èÐâ§’’tºæÓÒPÍ  4ëË·ú?ŽYu³ ðjz—ñ$-¾åóa'%o Ì£,ûcÆ0A4ªÛÕv%yL%Sº^óÂgT=]r7sƒÙGž*wð¥w`ÞEªÿËQ‡’)O«O³RâÊ*§:Ų]œ¨¿Ê¢º“cïo\íª®¾âÐŒIbAßµ†•!Ïøäí?S’ç<¤í-z9¤µ‚²!‘ù9úœ‰ %Z]†‘$â‡ádŽøB·Þ Äš¥è¾&æt=q¸qòÒËtt“BD'‰ó QÄq0œX,Y›Ý‘Í¿±z,Áòð¿3™˜^p$‚j˜Õ÷F'kégõÅf‘ K—%èÞöÇoºL— ʆÀ} ~æ :Z{¡q.0)5(#(# ÜÔ     "­ 3£"     ˆ † ˆ ­ 3£Ì. ï2•$ïÝÝï3  ïˆ0  ˆ    Students¥experience¥assessments¥and¥receive¥feedback¥about¥their¥performance. ° 3£Ì.Ÿ. ÔÜ(#(# ÜÔ    ˆ † ˆThis¥last¥guideline¥is¥so¥important¥that¥it¥needs¥special¥treatment.Ü pb Üíî  î˜ ˜ˆ @† ˆˆ @ ˆˆ @4 ˆAssessing¥Student¥Learning— —Ü 4 & Üî80îˆ † ˆHow¥is¥learning¥assessed?¥¥The¥obvious¥answer¥is,¥by¥giving¥tests¥that¥closely¥match¥whatÜ ö à Üwas¥taught.¥¥However,¥educators¥should¥search¥for¥other¥indicators.Ü ­ t  ܘ ˜íShort³Term¥Indicators— —Ü F8  ܈ † ˆTeachers¥should¥systematically¥look¥for¥multiple¥indicators¥as¥often¥as¥they¥can.Ü ¬û  ܈ † ˆ "­ 3£"      ­ 3£.2 ï2•$ïÝÝï3  ïˆ0  ˆ    Responses¥to¥oral¥quizzes¥that¥check¥for¥learning¥in¥progress ° 3£.2[2 ÔÜ Ÿ (#(# ÜÔ     "­ 3£"     ˆ † ˆ ­ 3£!3 ï2•$ïÝÝï3  ïˆ0  ˆ    Volunteered¥answers¥in¥discussions ° 3£!3Z3 ÔÜl^ (#(# ÜÔ     "­ 3£"     ˆ † ˆ ­ 3£4 ï2•$ïÝÝï3  ïˆ0  ˆ    Classroom¥behavior¥and¥discipline¥referrals:¥a¥decrease¥may¥indicate¥that¥social¥learningÜ ëË Üis¥occurring ° 3£4>4 ÔܼÂ(#(# ÜÔ     "­ 3£"     ˆ † ˆ ­ 3£A5 ï2•$ïÝÝï3  ïˆ0  ˆ    Attentiveness¥in¥the¥classroom ° 3£A5z5 ÔÜ(#(# ÜÔ     "­ 3£"     ˆ † ˆ ­ 3£!6 ï2•$ïÝÝï3  ïˆ0  ˆ    Quality¥of¥homework ° 3£!6Z6 ÔÜ~p(#(# ÜÔ    ˆ † ˆConsidered¥individually,¥each¥factor¥may¥not¥be¥a¥sign¥of¥learning¥or¥not¥learning.¥¥However,Ü ˆñ Ütaken¥collectively¥they¥can¥yield¥some¥tentative¥findings.Ü í² Üí˜ ˜Long³Term¥Indicators— —¥Ü Æ­! ܈ † ˆIn¥addition¥to¥these¥short³term¥indicators,¥administrators,¥counselors,¥and¥teachers¥should¥useÜ ¿# Üthe¥following¥indicators¥in¥order¥to¥discern¥long³term¥trends.Ü Š…$ Ü "­ 3£"     ˆ † ˆ ­ 3£‚8 ï2•$ïÝÝï3  ïˆ0  ˆ    Enrollments¥in¥advanced¥courses.¥Low¥enrollments¥in¥a¥subject¥such¥as¥physics¥mayÜ F 8& Üindicate¥negative¥attitudes¥towards¥that¥subject. ° 3£‚89 ÔÜ2!$'(#(# ÜÔ     "­ 3£"     ˆ † ˆ ­ 3£ : ï2•$ïÝÝï3  ïˆ0  ˆ    Attendance¥over¥the¥school¥year.¥¥Poor¥attendance¥may¥result¥from¥the¥studentÝÝs¥lack¥ofÜ ä"º) Üprogress¥and¥resulting¥frustration. ° 3£ :Y: ÔÜ¥#r*(#(# ÜÔ     "­ 3£"     ˆ † ˆ ­ 3£t; ï2•$ïÝÝï3  ïˆ0  ˆ    Recurring¥signs¥of¥stress.¥Persistent¥stress¥may¥also¥be¥the¥surface¥manifestation¥ofÜ ‰$ï, Üacademic¥failure. ° 3£t;Ð; ÔÜë%Ë -(#(# ÜÔ    î ¥ÕîÜ  0'""/ ܘ ˜ï½¹uúÈXXµïï*e°rddLdd Lr¡(#¡(#eïï,Ldd ïï+  ïÜ  Ü3.ˆ0 @ ˆï#ºXµXȹuú‹<#ïï½¹uúÈXXµïIMPROVING¥LEARNING¥BY¥REDUCING¥THE¥TAUGHT/Ü rd ÜLEARNED¥GAPï#ºXµXȹuú¯=#ïÜ#ºx@ù!@ù! #Ü— —î ¥îíï#ºXµXXXµ˜##ïï½XµXXXµïˆ † ˆThe¥general¥principles¥discussed¥in¥the¥previous¥chapter¥are¥general¥guidelines¥that¥can¥beÜ º x Üapplied¥at¥the¥classroom¥level¥to¥enhance¥learning.¥However,¥even¥in¥the¥best¥of¥situations¥thereÜ r d Üis¥a¥significant¥gap¥between¥what¥is¥taught¥and¥what¥is¥learned.¥(See,¥for¥example,¥Barton,¥1997;Ü ^ P Üand¥VanSledright,¥1995.)¥¥Ü J < ܈0 † ˆˆ0†(#†(#ˆ˜˜For¥example,¥in¥a¥history¥class,¥even¥though¥the¥teacher¥emphasized¥historical¥trends¥andÜ  õ  Üconcepts,¥students¥focused¥on¥individuals.¥One¥student¥reported¥that¥African¥AmericansÜ ùÉ  Üwere¥slaves¥because¥Ý Ýthe¥white¥people¥were¥greedyÝÝ¥(Barton,¥1997;¥p.¥299).——ܳv (#(# Üíî  î˜ ˜Causes¥of¥the¥Taught/Learned¥Gap— —Ü H:  ÜîAîˆ † ˆThe¥causes¥of¥the¥gap¥are¥several¥and¥can¥be¥usefully¥categorized¥into¥three¥groups:Ü »þ Üenvironmental;¥student;¥and¥teacher.Ü öà ܘ ˜íEnvironmental¥Factors— —Ü ZL Üî ¥É>îˆ † ˆ "­ 3£"      ­ 3£CC ï2•$ïÝÝï3  ïˆ0  ˆ    Classroom¥climate¥¥ ° 3£CCpC Ôܹ¨(#(# ÜÔ     "­Ž;"     î  ¥W?îˆ † ˆ ­Ž; D ˆ0  ˆï2•$ïÝÝï3  ïˆ04(#(#ˆ    If¥the¥climate¥is¥conflict³ridden,¥students¥will¥be¥inclined¥to¥deal¥with¥the¥conflict,Ü ¬û Üthus¥taking¥their¥minds¥off¥what¥the¥teacher¥is¥teaching.¥¥If¥the¥climate¥is¥too¥Ý Ýhot,ÝÝ¥inÜ äº Üthe¥sense¥of¥extreme¥closeness¥of¥teacher¥and¥students,¥then¥too¥much¥time¥will¥beÜ ¥r Üspent¥on¥interpersonal¥issues. °Ž; D_D ÔÜl^4(#4(# ÜÔ    î ¥9Dî "­ 3£"     ˆ † ˆ ­ 3£|F ï2•$ïÝÝï3  ïˆ0  ˆ    External¥noise ° 3£|FµF ÔÜëË(#(# ÜÔ     "­Ž;"     î  ¥`Eîˆ † ˆ ­Ž;LG ˆ0  ˆï2•$ïÝÝï3  ïˆ04(#(#ˆ    Although¥internal¥noise¥does¥not¥seem¥to¥be¥a¥factor,¥external¥noise¥distracts¥(trains,Ü ¼Â Üconstruction,¥trucks,¥fire¥engines,¥airplanes). °Ž;LGÄG ÔÜÏù 4(#4(# ÜÔ    ˜ ˜íî ¥yGîî ¥îTeacher¥Factors— —Ü j"\$ ܈ † ˆ "­ 3£"      ­ 3£#ïï½XµXXXµïBarton,¥K.¥C.¥(1997).¥Ý ÝBossed¥around¥by¥the¥queenÝÝ:¥Elementary¥studentsÝÝ¥understanding¥ofÜ rd Üindividuals¥and¥institutions¥in¥history.¥˜˜Journal¥of¥Curriculum¥and¥Supervision,¥12,——¥290³314.Ü^ P†(#†(# ܈0 † ˆˆ ¡ ˆˆ X ˆˆ ¡ ˆBransford,¥J.¥D.,¥Brown,¥A.¥L.,¥&¥Cocking,¥R.¥R.¥(1999).¥˜˜How¥People¥Learn.——¥Washington,¥DC:Ü Ë Ó ÜNational¥Research¥Council.Ü õ†(#†(# ܈0 † ˆˆ ¡ ˆNational¥Research¥Council.¥(1994).¥˜˜Learning,¥Remembering,¥and¥Believing.——¥Washington,¥DC:Ü    ÜAuthor.¥Üœ “ †(#†(# ܈0 † ˆˆ ¡ ˆˆ X ˆˆ ¡ ˆVanSledright,¥B.¥A.¥(1995).¥Ý ÝI¥donÝÝt¥remember³³the¥ideas¥are¥all¥jumbled¥in¥my¥headÝÝ:¥8thÜ \N  ÜgradersÝÝ¥reconstructions¥of¥Colonial¥American¥history.¥˜˜Journal¥of¥Curriculum¥andÜ H:  ÜSupervision,——¥317³345.Ü4& †(#†(# ܈0 † ˆˆ ¡ ˆï#ºXµXXXµý_#ïÜ †(#†(# ܈ † ˆˆ  ˆˆ 4 ˆˆ ` ˆˆ Ô ˆˆ ü ˆˆ Š ˆˆ  ˆˆ < ˆˆ h ˆˆ Ë ˆ